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Book .11? 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 






IMPROVED BY 



A CATECHISM OF 

f GRBGIAK ANTIQUITIES, 

Being an account of the Religion, Govern- 
ment hidkial Proceedings, Military arid^^ 
Naval Affairs, Dress* Food, Baths, Ex/. ■£* 
ercises, Marriages, Funerals, Ooins(^rJ^^ 

Weights, Measures, &{C. 
OF THE Q REEKS; 
To which is prefixed, ~a Description of the '^ 
Cities of Jlhens and Sparta, 

FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED, 

By M. J. KERNE Y, A. M.' ^ 




Adapted to the Use of Schools in the 


United States. , 

i Co. ^^;^ 
t. f«S 


$.'0/^ No. 178 Market stree 
jj»| Pittsburg: 
H^W^^P GEO.QUIGLEY. 

^^^^^ 1 85-4, / 


i JhEs 



1^ 



i^"Z- 



IRVING'S 

CAUECHISM 

GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES; 



BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE 



RELIGION, GOVERNMENT, JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, 

MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, DRESS, FOOD, 

BATHS, EXERCISES, MARRIAGES, FUNERALS, 

COINS, WEIGHTS, MEASURES, &c. 

F 

THE, GREEKS: 

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, 

A Description of the Cities of Athens and Sparta* 

WITH ENGRAVED ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Vos exemplaria Graeca 
Noctuma versate manu, versate diurna. — Horat. 



FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED, 

By M. J. KERNEY, A. M. 

Author of Compendium of Ancient and Modern History, Columbian Arithmetic, 
First Class Book of History, Catechism of the History of the United States, &c, 



Adapted to the Use of Schools in the United States. 



BALTIMORE: 

Printed and Published by John Murphy fy Co. 

No. 178 MARKET STREET. 

PITTSBURG : GEORGE QUIGLEY. 

Sr ^ Sold by Booksellers generally, 

^<2 1854. 



Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1854, 

BY JOHN MURPHY & CO. 

in the Cflerk's Office of the District Court of Maryland, 



n 



PREFACE 



The long established reputation of Irvjng's 
Catechisms, precludes the necessity of adding 
any comments on their merits. The very exten- 
sive circulation which they have had, not only in 
England, but also in this country, is the best proof 
of their utility. The system on which his works 
prearranged, is the most judicious that could be 
adopted to facilitate instruction for it is now ad- 
mitted by the most experienced teachers, that the 
Catechetical form of instruction, is best suited to 
the nature and the capacity of the young;— a 
system, by which children will acquire a know- 
ledge of a science, in less time, than by any other. 

The present number on Grecian Antiquities, 
will be found to possess peculiar merits. It pre- 
sents to the pupil, a minute account of the various 
institutions of ancient Greece; of the laws, the 
manners and customs of the people, from the 
earliest period of their history, to their final sub- 
jugation to the power of Rome. 

The present edition has been carefully revised 
and corrected ; no pains have been spared on the 
part of the publishers to render it still more de- 
serving of that liberal patronage, which it has 
already received. 



CONTENTS, 



Page 

Preface..... •• •» 5 ^ 

Introduction & 

BOOK I. 

Civil Government of the Athenians. 
Chap. 

I. Description of the City of Athens..* II 

II. Of the Citizens, Tribes, Sojourners, and 

Slaves 1 3 

III. Of the Athenian Magistrates IS 

IV. Of the Nine Archons 18 

V. Inferior Magistrates 21 

VI. The Council of the Amphictyons 23 

| VII. Assemblies of the People r 25 

VIH. The Senate of Five Hundred 28 

IX. The Court of Areopagus. « 3Q 

X. Courts of Justice, Judicial Proceedings, 

Punishments and Rewards 32 

XI. Of the Athenian Laws 36 

BOOK II. 

Civil Government of the Spartans. 

I. Description of the City of Lacedaemon, 

commonly called Sparta. » . ♦ . . 3& 

II. Citizens, Tribes, and Slaves 41 

III. The Kings of Sparta a 42 

IV. The Spartan Senate 44 

V. The Ephori and other Magistrates. . ....... 45 . 



vill CONTENTS. 

Chap. Page 

VI. The Public Assemblies 46 

VII. Of the Education of the Spartan Youth. ... 49< 

VIII. Of the Spartan Laws 51 

IX. Public Honors and Rewards, and Criminal 

Punishments 54 

BOOK III. 

Religion of the Greeks. 

I. The Gods of Greece, and the Places of Re- 
ligious Worship 57 

II. Priests, Sacrifices, Presents, Prayers, and 

Oaths.. 59 

III. Grecian Oracles and Divinations 63 

IV. Festivals and Games 65 

; V. Computation of Time 69 

B£OK IV. 

..Military and Naval Affairs of the Greeks. * 

I. Levies, Pay and different Sorts of Soldiers. . 71 

II. Military Armor and Weapons 73 

III. Grecian Battles and Sieges 75 

IV. Military Funerals, Booty, Offerings to the 

Gods, Trophies 78 

V. Military Rewards and Punishments 79 

VI. Naval Affairs of the Greeks 80 

BOOK V. 
Private Life of the Greeks. 
I. Dress and entertainments of the Greeks. ... 83 

II. Marriages < 

ill. Funeral Solemnities 88 j, 

IV. Celebrated Men. 91 I 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



25 



Q,. If these sentences were not obeyed, what 
was done ? 

A. If the nation or city against which the fine 
was awarded, still continued refractory, the coun- 
cil might call in assistance to support its decrees, 
and arm against it the whole Amphictyonic body, 
consisting of a great part of Greece. 



CHAPTER VII. 
Assemblies of the People. 

Q,. On what subject and at what time were 
assemblies of the people held in Athens ? 

A. An assembly of the Athenian people was 
convened for the purpose of consulting on what 
was most beneficial to the commonwealth : they 
usually met foUr times in 35 days; but they were 
also summoned when any sudden emergency re- 
quired an immediate resolution. 

Q,. Of what persons did the assemblies consist? 

A. The assemblies of the people consisted of 
such as were freemen of Athens, every one hav- 
ing the same right of speaking and voting : 
slaves, foreigners, women, children, and those 
who had been punished with infamy were ex- 
cluded. 

Q,. Where did the people assemble? 

A. The place where the Athenians assembled, 
was either the forum or the pnyx, a large space in 
the neighborhood : or more frequently the theatre 
of Bacchus. 

Q,. How were the people assembled ? 
3 



26 CATECHISM OF 

A. The people were called together by the 
Prytanes; and no business could be transacted in 
an assembly of fewer than 6,000 citizens : a fine 
was imposed on all those who were not present; 
but this was altered and every one that attended 
might claim a reward of three oboli. 

Q,. What was done preparatory to the meeting? 

A. The Prytanes, some time before they met, 
always hung up, in a place of general resort, an 
account of the matters to he debated in the as- 
sembly, that every one might have time to con- 
sider before he gave his opinion : a president was 
also chosen by lot from among the Prcedri. 

Q,. How was the meeting opened ? 
, A. The place where it was held was purified by . 
a sacrifice, after which, a herald made a solemn 
prayer for the prosperity of Athens, and the good 
success of their deliberations : this was followed 
by dreadful imprecations on those who should be 
bribed By the enemies of their country, or should 
propose any thing inconsistent with its welfare. 

,0,. How was the business of the meeting intro- 
duced ? 

A. The president ordered the subject on which 
they were to deliberate, to be read ; the crier then 
proclaimed, " Who above fifty years of age will 
speak ? " and afterwards, that every Athenian, 
whom the laws allowed, was at liberty to speak: 

Note.; — In Athens every citizen who was above 30 years 
of age, might give his opinion on any subject under consid- 
eration ; but it was thought unbecoming for young men to 
do so, before they had heard the sentiments of the aged 
and experienced, who were better able to judge: those 
who had been guilty of impiety or cowardice, or were in- 
debted to the state, were not permitted. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 27 

but lew besides the state orators ascended the 
rostrum. 

Q,. How was the matter terminated? 

A. When the question had been sufficiently 
discussed, the president called for a decision of 
the people, which was manifested by a show of 
hands : the business being finished, the assembly 
broke up with the same noise and tumult as had 
prevailed through the whole course of the delib- 
erations. 

Q,. Was there no other way of voting ? 

A. When magistrates were degraded, the votes 
were given in private, by casting beans or pebbles 
into vessels placed to receive them : on certain 
occasions the people voted by tribes ; and the 
votes of each tribe were always in the power of 
the poorer citizens, who were more numerous 
than the rich. 

Q,; What have you to observe of the Athenian 
assemblies ? 

A. Although the orators had great influence 
over the people, yet the supreme authority re- 
mained with them : the people decided upon 
peace or war, con6rmed or abrogated laws, im- 
posed taxes, nominated to almost every office, and 
decreed rewards to those who had rendered ser- 
vices to their country. 

Note. — This was done that the power and influence of 
the persons accused might not impose any restraint upon 
the people, nor cause them to act contrary to their opinion 
and inclination. 



28 CATECHISM OF 

CHAPTER VIII. 
The Senate of Five Hundred, 

Q,. For what purpose was the Senate instituted % 

A. Although the whole power and management 
of affairs in Athens, were vested in the people* 
yet as they might be persuaded by eloquent dema- 
gogues to enact dangerous decrees, it was judged 
necessary to institute a senate that should inspect 
all matters before they were proposed to the 
people. 

Q,. From whom was this body chosen ? 

A. The senators of Athens were annually 
chosen by lot, 50 from each tribe of citizens ; and 
as the Attic year was divided into ten parts, each 
tribe had the presidency of the senate during 34 
days. 

Q,. What examination had the senators to un- 
dergo ? 

A. Before any person was admitted into the 
senate, his character and conduct were strictly in- 
vestigated by the court of Helisea : he might also 
be examined monthly before the assembly of the 
people ; and at the end of the year he could not 
obtain a crown till he had proved a diligent and 
faithful discharge of his duty. 

Q,. What was the oath the senators took? 

A. Every senator was required solemnly to 
swear, that in every thing he would strive to pro- 
mote the public good, and not advise any thing 

Note. — To avoid confusion, every Prytania was divided 
into five weeks : by which the 50 Prytanes were ranked 
into five Decuriae, each of which presided a week. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 29 

contrary to the laws ; that he would send no citizen 
to prison who was able to find bail, unless accused 
of a conspiracy, or of embezzling the public 
revenue. 

Q,. What were the duties of the senate of 
Athens? 

A. It was the peculiar province of the senate to 
observe that no proposals were made to the assem- 
bly of the people, but such as seemed conducive to 
their interest : they examined the accounts of magis- 
trates, took care of the fleet, and punished such 
offences as were not forbidden by any written law. 

Q,. When did the senate meet? 

A. The senate met every morning, and were 
maintained at the public expense; every time 
they assembled, they offered sacrifices to Jupiter 
and to Minerva. 

Q,. How was the business of the senate con- 
ducted? 

A. After the Prytanes had explained the sub- 
ject of deliberation, every senator was at liberty to 
give his opinion; but this they did standing: 
when all had done speaking, the decree was writ- 
ten down, and read aloud in the house. 

Q,. How did the senators give their votes? 

A. After the decree had b*en read, the senators 
proceeded to vote in private, by casting white and 
black beans into a vessel placed for that purpose : 
if the latter were more numerous, the proposal 
was rejected ; but if the former, it was passed 
into a decree. 

Q,. Had the decrees of the senate the force of laws? 

A. The decrees of the senate had the force of 
laws during their continuance in office; but they 
did not become permanent, unless they were ap- 
proved by the assembly of the people. 



30 CATECHISM OF 

Q,. What were the restraints upon the power 
of the senate ? 

A. The senate of Athens was annually re- 
elected, and was expected to exclude those mem- 
bers whose conduct had been reprehensible ; and 
previously to its dissolution, to deliver up its 
accounts. 



CHAPTER IX. 
The Court of Areopagus. 

Q,. What was the senate court of Areopagus? 

A. The Areopagus was the supreme court of 
Athens, which took cognizance of vices, abuses 
and innovations, either in the system of religion, 
or the form of government; and so upright and 
impartial were its decisions, that throughout Greece 
they were considered as standards of wisdom and 
humanity. 

Q,. Who were the persons chosen as members 
of this supreme court? 

A. The court of Areopagus consisted of Archo- 
ens, who had given a satisfactory account of their 
administration, and had undergone a rigorous in- 
quiry into their behavior. 

€1. What were the powers vested in this court? 

A. The court of Areopagus was empowered to 

Note — The members of the court of Areopagus also 
watched, with attention, over the conduct of their own 
members : it is related that one of them was punished for 
having stifled a little bird, which had taken refuge in his 
bosom ! he was thus taught, that he who shuts his heart 
against pity, ought not to have the lives of citizens at his 
mercy. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 31 

reward the meritorious and to punish the impious 
and the immoral : it was the guardian of the 
manners and education of the Athenian youth, 
and had the inspection and custody of the laws; 
but it interfered with public affairs only in cases 
of emergency and danger, being the last and safest 
refuge of the commonweatlh. 

Q,. What is remarkable of their judgments? 

A. The Areopagites sat in the open air, that 
their sacred persons might contract no pollution, 
from conversing with profane and wicked men : 
they also heard and determined all cases at night 
and in darkness: and to laugh in their assembly, 
was an unpardonable act of levity. 

Q,. What was the form of their proceedings'? 

A. Before the trial of any offence, the criminal 
and the accuser, or the plaintiff and the defendant, 
took solemn oaths by the Furies ; the one of his 
innocence, and the other of the truth of his accu- 
sation ; and both confirmed their oaths by the 
most dreadful imprecations on themselves and 
their families, if they swore falsely. 

Q,. What was next done? 

A. The two parties were placed upon two sil- 
ver stools ; and the prisoner, after hearing the ac- 
cusation, was at liberty to go into voluntary 
banishment, or to defend 'his casue. When the 
parties had been heard, the members of the court, 
in silence, deposited their suffrages into the urns 
of Death and Mercy. 

Note. — The culprit was also allowed counsel to plead 
for him : but they who spoke were to give a plain, unvar- 
nished statement of facts ; for they were interrupted as 
soon as they introduced any embellishments of rhetoric, or 
attempted to move the passions of the judges. 



32 CATECHISM OF 

Q,. What did they believe if the votes were 
equally divided? 

A. If the votes were equally divided,, they 
supposed that Minerva, the tutelary goddess of 
Athens, added her suffrage, and in this case, they 
always inclined on the side of mercy. 



CHAPTER X. 

Courts of Justice, Judicial Proceedings , Pun- 
ishments and Rewards. 

Q,. How many courts of justice were therein 
Athens ? 

A. Besides the Areopagus, there were ten dif- 
ferent courts of Justice in Athens : four of which 
judged in criminal, and six in civil causes : each of 
them consisted of several hundred judges, and 
changed its members every year. 

Q,. Who were admitted to be judges in Athens ? 

A. The judges were chosen from the citizens, 
without any regard to rank or property, the low- 
est of them being eligible to the office, provided 
they were thirty years of age, and had not been 
convicted of any notorious offence. 

Q,. What was the badge and salary of the 
judges? 

A. The usual badge of judicial power among 
the Athenians was a sceptre, which was some- 
times studded with gold and silver ; when they 
had heard the causes to be determined, they re- 
turned the sceptre to the Prytanes, from whom 
they received three oboli as their reward. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 33 

Q,. What were the proceedings of the criminal 
courts? 

A. The proceedings in these courts were the 
oath of the accuser and the defendant, the speeches 
of each party, and the judgment. 

Q,. "Which was the most remarkable of these 
courts ? 

A. The most remarkable of the criminal courts 
of Athens, was one which took cognizance of 
deaths occasioned by things without life, as stones, 
iron, timber; which, if they killed any person by- 
accident, had judgment passed on them to be cast 
out of the territories of Athens. 

Q,. Which was the most celebrated and fre- 
quented court for civil affairs ? 

A. The Helieea was the principal and the most 
remarkable court of justice in Athens, next to the 
Areopagus ; it was held in an open place, exposed 
to the sun's rays. 

Q,. What were its powers and the number of 
its members ? 

A. Besides judging in civil actions, the Helisea 
pronounced sentence on those persons who had 
been accused before the Areopagus; this court 
was composed of 500 members ; but in important 
trials, judges from the other courts were added,, 
to the number of 1,500 or 2,000. 

T. Describe how a judicial process was begun 
in Athens. 

P. First the plaintiff delivered the name of the 
person against whom he brought the action, with 
an account of the offence, to the magistrate, whose 
office it was to introduce it into the proper court. 

Q,. What was the next proceeding? 

A. The magistrate then cited the defendant to 
appear before him ; and both parties being present. 



34 CATECHISM OF 

an oath was required of each : the plaintiff swore 
he would make no false accusation, and that he 
would not be bribed to desist from the prosecution ; 
the defendant swore that he had not injured the 
plaintiff. 

Q,. What was done after this ? 

A. The magistrate, having written down the 
oaths, and the evidence of the witnesses, who 
were also sworn with great solemnity, cast lots 
for the judges, proposed the cause to them, and 
delivered the documents of the action. 

T. Describe the proceedings which followed. 

P. After the witnesses had again given their 
evidence before the Judges, the plaintiff and the 
defendant each spoke: or were allowed advocates 
to plead for them ; and when both parties had 
finished their speeches, the public crier, by com- 
mand of the presiding magistrate ordered the 
judges to bring in their verdict. 

Q,. How did the judges give their verdict? 

A. The judges, in giving their verdict, made 
use of white and black beans, which thy took from 
the altar and cast into two urns ; the urns were 
then opened, and the suffrages numbered in the 
presence of the magistrate : if there was a majo- 
rity of black beans, he pronounced the accused 
guilty; but if of the white, he was acquitted. 

Q,. What were the punishments used among 
the Athenians? 

A. The most common and remarkable punish- 
ments inflicted on malefactors, were fines, infamy, 

Note.— It will be seen that the Athenian judges performed 
the office of jurors ; and that the magistrate presiding, who 
gave them the cause in charge, nearly answers the descrip- 
tion of our judge. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. ' 35 

servitude, branding, imprisonment, fetters, per- 
petual banishment, and death. 

Q,. How was death inflicted at Athens ? 

A. The Athenians inflicted death by beheading, 
hanging, poison, throwing down a precipice or 
deep pit, crucifixion, lapidation, drowning in the 
sea, and burning. 

Q,. What were the crimes for which death was 
inflicted ? 

A. By the Athenian law, those convicted of 
sacrilege, treason, murder, or the more flagrant 
kinds of robbery, were declared to be deserving of 
death and rarely underwent a milder punishment. 

Q,. What were the rewards bestowed on those 
who had deserved well of their country? 

A. The principal honors conferred on deserving 
citizens, were crowns bestowed by the assemblies 
of the people; statues erected in the forum, or 
other public places; and the privilege of having 
the first seat at all public assemblies and enter- 
tainments. 

Q,. What other rewards were decreed by the 
commonwealth? 

A. Other rewards in Athens were an immunity 
from all taxes, contributions, &c, and splendid 
entertainments at the public expense : this last 
honor could be bestowed only once on the same 
person. 

Note. — We have no punishment corresponding with 
infamy : by it the Athenian criminal with all his children 
and posterity, was for ever deprived of the rights of a 
citizen, both sacred and civil ; he was left at liberty, but 
he was no longer under the protection of the laws, and 
might be wronged or insulted without means of obtaining 
redress : this was the punishment for cowardice, perjury 
or ingratitude to parents. 



36 CATECHISM OF 

Q,. What extraordinary advantage accompa- 
nied these distinctions ? 

A. Those who had received any privilege from 
ihe city of Athens, were under its immediate care 
and protection; and the injuries done to them 
were considered as committed against the com- 
monwealth, and the transgressors were punished 
with infamy. 



CHAPTER XI. 
Of the Athenian Laws. 

Q,. Who were the principal legislators of Athens? 

A. The first lawgiver of the Athenian common- 
wealth was Draco, whose laws were said not to 
be written with ink, but with blood ; because by 
Them all offences were punished with death : the 
second lawgiver was Solon, who repealed the 
former laws, and laid down the system of govern- 
ment, which has been described in the foregoing 
pages. 

Q,. What is remarkable of the Athenian legis- 
lature ? 

A. The Athenians were the first people who 
had written laws : and to them the Romans and 
the present states of Europe are indebted for this 
excellent invention, upon which depends the foun- 
dation of all civil government, and of all mutual 
society amongst men. 

Q,. How was a law enacted in Athens ? 

A. When any one intended to propose a public 
measure, he first communicated it to the Prytanes, 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 37 

who laid it before the senate, where it was either 
rejected or adopted : if it was agreed to it was 
hung up for many days at the statues of the heroes, 
that all the citizens might be informed what was 
intended to be proposed at the next meeting. 

Q,. What other form had it to undergo ? 

A. When the people were convened, the pro- 
posal of the law was read and every citizen was 
at liberty to give his opinion on the subject; if it 
was approved, it passed into a law : but if it 
was thought improper, the assembly rejected it : 
and if it contained any thing prejudicial to the re- 
public, the proposer might be impeached. 

Q,.- What particulars have you to remark among 
those, which related to divine worship, games, &c? 

A. An Athenian law ordained that no violence 
was to be offered to any one who fled to the tem- 
ples for refuge; another, that one day in even/ 
year should be appropriated to a public cock- 
fighting. 

Q,. What remarkable laws were there concerning 
the popular assemblies,, magistrates, &c? 

A. By a law, the crier was openly to curse 
him, his kindred, and family, who pleaded or 
voted for the sake of private interest : he who was 
undutiful to his parents, was to be incapable of 
bearing any office, and might be impeached before 
the magistrate. 

Q,. What other remarkable laws were there 1 

A. The Athenian law ordained that no onfcwas 
to be a public orator, who had struck his parents, 
refused to maintain them, or expelled them his 
house : another law directed that no school was 
to be opened before the rising, or kept open after 
the setting of the sun. 



88 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Q,. Was there not another extraordinary law on 
this subject ? 

A. Yes: the law forbad that any, except the 
sons, nephews, and daughter's husbands, should be 
allowed to enter the school when the boys were in 
it; and he who broke this law, was to suffer death. 

Q,. Which were the most remarkable laws re- 
lating to law suits, &-c? 

A. Criminals, in Athens, had the liberty of 
making their own defence : when there was an 
equal number of votes on each side, the prisoner 
was acquitted : he who confessed his guilt before 
the trial, was to be condemned. 

Q,. What laws are worthy of notice concerning 
buying and selling? 

A. By the Athenian law, the fishmonger, who 
over-rated his fish, and afterwards took less than 
he at first asked for them, was to suffer imprison- 
ment ; and they, who counterfeited, debased, or 
diminished the current coin, were to lose their 
lives. 



- -— 



BOOK II. 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT OF THE SPJRTANS. 



CHAPTER I. 
Description of the City of Sparta, or Lacedcemon. 

Q,. Where was the city of Sparta situated ? 

A. The city of Sparta, or LacedaBmon, was 
built upon the banks of the river Eurotas,, and 
was the capital of the province of Laconia. 

CI. What was its form and extent? 

A. The city of Sparta was of a circular form, 
and was six miles in circumference : it had no 
walls, or other means of defence than the valor of 
its inhabitants. 

d. How was it built ? 

A. Sparta consisted of five towns, built round 
an eminence, at different distances, each of which 
was occupied by one of the five tribes of Sparta. 

Q,. What have you to observe of the environs 
of Sparta? 

A. Sparta was surrounded to a great extent 
with vineyards, olive and plane-trees,, gardens 
and summer houses: the soil of the plains was 

Note. — The people, in general, were sometimes called 
Lacedaemonians, although originally there was a great dif- 
ference between them and the Spartans : the latter in- 
habited the town; the former, the country: the latter 
composed those bands of renowned warriors, upon whom 
depended the glory and safety of the state; the former 
were only summoned to arms on critical occasions, and 
were seldom consulted about public measures. 



40 CA.TECHISM OF 

most favorable to the growth of com ; and the 
wines made in the neighborhood were esteemed 
superior to any in Greece. 

Q,. What is remarkable of the Spartan forum % 

A. The great square or forum, in which several 
streets terminated, was embellished with temples 
and statues; it also xxmtained the edifices, in 
which the senate, the ephori, and other bodies of 
magistrates, held their assemblies. 

GL. What is remarkable of the temple of Minerva? 

A. This temple, which was on the citadel, was 
built with brass, and had the privilege of being an 
asylum ; it was adorned in the inside with various 
representations of heroic actions : to the right of 
this edifice was a statue of Jupiter, supposed to 
be the most ancient statue of brass in existence. 

Q,. What else have you to observe of the city 
of Sparta ? 

A. Sparta also contained a great number of 
monuments in honor of the gods and ancient 
heroes : sacred rites honored and perpetuated the 
memory of Hercules, Tyndarus, Castor, Pollux, 
Menelaus, Leonidas, &c. 

Q,. What do you remark of the houses? 

A. The houses of Lacedaemon were devoid of 
ornament ; but they were lofty, and built with 
great solidity : on different sides of the city were 
courses for horse and foot races, and places of 
exercise for youth, shaded by beautiful plane-trees. 

Note. — This statue was orthe same date as the re- 
establishment of the Olympic games, and was only an 
assemblage of pieces fitted to each other, and fastened to- 
gether with pins. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 41 

CHAPTER II. 
Citizens, Tribes, and Slaves. 

Q,. How were the inhabitants of Sparta divided 1 

A. The inhabitants of Sparta consisted of citi- 
zens and slaves : the citizens were also distin- 
guished into Homoii and Hypomoiones. 

Q,. What is the difference between these two 
classes of citizens V 

A. The liberty of both of these classes was ap- 
parently equal; but the former alone could fill the 
public offices: the Hypomoiones consisted of the 
poorer citizens^ the freed men and their sons, who 
were only allowed to vote at elections ; while the 
Homoii were qualified both to vote and to be elected. 

Q,. What have you to observe of the slaves? 

A. The slaves or Helots in Lacedsemon ex- 
ceeded the freemen in number, and there were more 
in this state than in any other state of Greece ; but 
their condition was not so severe. 

Q,. What were the employments of the Helots'? 

A. The Helots in Sparta served as sailors in the 
fleet ; they were attached to the army, every soldier 
being attended by one or more; they farmed the 
lands; and many employed themselves in the me- 
chanical arts with so much success, that the keys, 
beds, tables, and chairs of Lacedaemon, were every 
where in great request. 

Q,. In how many tribes were the citizens of 
Sparta divided? 

Note.— The citizens were of two kinds : they who were 
born citizens ; and they who had been presented with the 
freedom of the city. Freedmen and slaves were sometimes 
created citizens ; but in small numbers, and only such as 
had signalized themselves by their services. 
4 



42 CATECHISM OF 

A. The citizens of Sparta were divided into five 
tribes; and every tribe was composed of six obae, 
which had their peculiar appellations. 

Q,. Was there any other division of the people? 

A. Yes : besides the above distinctions, the 
people were also divided into six mora?, which 
were composed of such persons as were of a proper 
age for military service: from this division, there- 
fore, the youths and old men were excluded. 



CHAPTER III. 

The Kings of Sparta. 

Qi. How was the regal power exercised in 
Sparta ? 

A. The republic of Sparta had two magistrates, 
called kings, but they differed from those of most 
other nations : this double royalty was calculated 
to moderate the regal power, as they formed a 
check upon each other. 

Q,. What was the power of the kings ? 

A. The authority of the kings of Sparta was 
limited ; and every month they took an oath that 
they would rule according to the laws : one of 
them commanded the army, while the other re- 
mained at home to administer justice, unless it 
happened that two armies were in the field at the 
same time. 

Q,. What other offices did they perform 2 

A. The kings being considered as the first citi- 
zens of the state, presided in the senate, and pro- 
posed the subjects for deliberation; but their chief 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 43 

power consisted in their being the arbiters and 
governors of all things pertaining to religion and 
the worship of the gods. 

Q,. What were the ensigns of their dignity ? 

A. The kings of Sparta appeared in public with- 
out any retinue, and could scarcely be distin- 
guished from the other citizens: as first citizens, 
however, they were honored with the first place, 
and all rose in their presence. 

Q,. How did they appear, when commanding 
the army ? 

A. The Spartan kings, when at the head of the 
armies, appeared with that splendor and authority 
necessary to insure obedience : besides a guard of 
10 chosen men, they were attended by the prin- 
cipal officers, whom they occasionally consulted : 
three subaltern officers, to attend on their persons : 
and two augurs, who were occasionally sent to 
consult the oracle of Apollo. 

Q,. What else have you to remark of the kings 
of Sparta ? 

A. The vote of each king in the senate was 
equivalent to two ; and they received a double 
portion at entertainments. During peace they 
were not allowed to be absent: and when either 
of them was accused of any crime, he was cited 
before the senate, over which the other king pre- 
sided, assisted by the five Ephori, who had power 
to condemn him : but an appeal lay from their de- 
cision to the assembly of the people. 



44 CATECHISM OF 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Spartan Senate. 

Q,. What was the senate of Sparta? 

A. The senate of Sparta, consisting of 28 elders, 
was the supreme council of the republic; and in 
-it were first discussed all questions relative to war, 
peace, alliances, and other high and important 
affairs of state. 

Q,. Of whom was the senate composed? 

A. The senate consisted of 28 senators above 60 
years of age, who retained their dignity till death. 

Q,. Was the dignity of senator much esteemed 
in Sparta? 

A. A place in this august assembly was granted 
only to the citizen who, from his earliest youth, 
had been distinguished for consummate prudence 
and eminent virtues. 

Q,. How were the senators elected? 

A. The election of the senators took place in 
public, before the kings, the senators, the magis- 
trates, and whole body of the people. Each candi- 
date appeared in the order assigned him by lot, 
walking through the forum with downcast eyes, 
and in profound silence. 

Q,. How was the decision made ? 

A. As every candidate passed, he was received 
with shouts of approbation, more or less frequent : 
these shouts were noted by certain persons sta- 
tioned in a neighboring house, who heard every 

Note. — The different candidates did not make the most 
distant attempt towards moving the affections or exciting 
the passions of the spectators : every one resting on the . 
opinion entertained of his talents and virtues. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 45 

thing but saw nothing, and who reported the pre- 
cise time when the longest and loudest marks of 
applause were shown. 

Q,. What ceremony followed the election ? 

A. The candidate who had received the most 
lively and continued marks of approbation, was 
conducted through every part of the city in a tri- 
umphal procession, with a garland round his head, 
attended by a number of young people of both 
sexes, celebrating his virtues and the honor he had 
just obtained. 

Q,. What was the power of the senate? 

A. The power of the senators was such, that 
they were called the lords and masters, being su- 
perior to the kings. The senate had a chief share 
in the administration of all public affairs, and was 
not accountable to any superior tribunal. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Ephori and other Magistrates. 

Qi. Who were the Ephori? 

A. The Ephori were five Spartan magistrates 
elected by the people, to inspect the public man- 
ners and the administration of justice. 

Q,. How were they elected ? 

A. The people possessed the right of electing 
these magistrates from the citizens of every rank : 
to prevent the abuse of their authority thev were 
changed every year; and the chief of the Ephori 
gave his name to the year. 

Q,. What were their principal duties? 



46 CATECHISM OP 

A. The most important duty of the Ephori, was 
to inspect the education of the Spartan youth : 
they also watched over the purity of the laws; 
took cognizance of the conduct of magistrates; 
and guarded against the introduction of luxury, or 
any innovation upon the public manners. 

Q,. What were the other duties of these magis- 
trates ? 

A. The Ephori received foreign ambassadors ; 
they appointed two of their number to accompany 
the king into the field, and watch over his con- 
duct; they convened the general assembly, and 
collected its suffrages. 

Q,. What were the other principal magistrates? 

A. There were the guardians of the laws, whose 
office it was to reward those who obeyed, and 
punish such as disobeyed ; public inspectors, who 
observed that nothing indecent or unjust was done 
in the public places ; also masters or governors of 
boys, who were chosen from the most worthy of 
the people. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Public Assemblies. 

Qi. How many kinds of assemblies were there 
in Sparta? 

A. Two public assemblies met at Sparta : the 
one called the general assembly of the nation, at 
which all the free inhabitants of Laconia were in- 
vited to be present; the other, called the lesser 
assembly, was composed of Spartans, or inhabi- 
tants of the metropolis. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 47 

Q,. Of whom was the greater assembly com- 
posed? 

A. The greater assembly of Lacedaemon was 
composed of the kings, the senate, the magis- 
trates, and all the Lacedaemonians who could 
attend: to it also were admitted the deputies of 
the cities of Laconia, of the Spartan allies, and of 
the nations who came to implore their assistance. 

Q,. What subjects were determined in the gen- 
eral assembly ? 

A. The general assembly of the Lacedaemonians 
was convened whenever any question relative to 
making peace or declaring war, contracting alli- 
ances, or other matters of general concern were to 
be determined : in it were laid down the plans of 
the future campaign, and the contributions to be 
furnished. 

Q,. Who composed the lesser assembly? 

A. The lesser assembly was attended by the 
Spartans only, who, in conjunction with the kings, 
senate, and the different classes of the magistrates, 
met to discuss matters pertaining to themselves. 

Q,. For what purpose was the lesser assembly 
called together? 

A. At the lesser Spartan assembly, the succes- 
sion to the crown was regulated, magistrates 
chosen or deposed, cognizance was taken of public 
crimes, and every thing was discussed relating to 
the great objects of religion and government. 

Q,. When was it convened, and who voted at 
this assembly? 

A. The lesser assembly was held every month, 
at the full moon ; and every citizen above thirty 

Note. — But the lesser assembly might be summoned by 
the Ephori, when any extraordinary occasion occurred. 



48 CATECHISM OF 

years of age was entitled to vote, provided he had 
brought no stain upon his character by cowardice 
in the field or irregular conduct at home. 

' Q,. By whom were these two assemblies called 
together, and when did they meet? 

A. The assemblies were both convoked by the 
Ephori, who presided at every meeting : the place 
of meeting was appointed by the Oracle, and was 
always in the open air. 

Q,. What was the power of these assemblies? 

A. Both these assemblies were preceded by de- 
crees of the senate, and the people had the power 
of approving or disapproving them. 

Q,. Who were allowed to address the people? 

A. Every person had a right to give his opinion, 
provided he had passed his thirtieth year, and his 
character was irreproachable : the kings and sena- 
tors frequently spoke, and their authority was of 
great weight; but that of the Ephori was still 
greater. 

Q,. How was the decision of the assembly 
taken ? 

A. When the question had been sufficiently de- 
bated, one of the Ephori asked the opinion of the 
assembly ; and immediately acclamations were 
heard for the affirmative or the negative, and the 
decision was made in favor of the greater number. 

Q,. But was this method always conclusive^ 

A. No : sometimes, after repeated trials, if it 
were impossible to distinguish which had the ma- 
jority, the Ephori called for a division, numbering 
the two parties, and thus ascertained the sense of 
the meeting. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 49 

CHAPTER VII. 
Of the Education of the Spartan Youth. 

Q,. Who were the children that received the 
education of Spartan youth? 

A. Only the offspring of Spartan citizens en- 
joyed that advantage; and parents were taught to 
consider their children as born not for themselves, 
but for the state, which adopted them as soon as 
reason began to dawn, and took their education 
out of the hands of their parents. 

Q,. What examination did the children undergo, 
immediately after their birth? 

A. As soon as a child was born, he was taken 
to an assembly of the elders of the tribe, where, if 
he appeared healthy and well formed, he was 
choseji in the name of his country to be hereafter 
one of her defenders; but, if he had any capital 
defect,* he was cast into a gulf, where he perished. 

Q,. W hat care was taken of their childhood ? 

A. As soon as the Spartan youth began to exer- 
cise their judgment, every means were adopted to 
inspire them with sentiments of magnanimity. 

Q,. What discipline were they obliged to undergo 
during this period? 

A. From their tenderest infancy, they were ac- 
customed to make no choice in their eating, not to 
be afraid in the dark, or when left alone, to walk 
barefooted without being peevish or fretful, to lie 
on beds of rushes, and to wear the same clothes in 
summer and winter. 

Q,. What transition did they undergo? 

A. At the age of seven, if the aged persons of 
their tribe approved of them, they were enrolled 



50 CATECHISM OF 

in the classes for a public education : here their 
discipline was very severe ; they still went bare- 
footed, their heads were shaved, and they were 
taught to fear nothing from their equals. 

Q,. What was the next step in their education? 

A. When the Spartan youth had attained 12 
years of age, they were removed into a higher 
class, where their discipline was still more rigid 
and severe : here it was considered as a necessary 
duty for them to endure hunger, thirst, and every 
kind of bodily suffering, without the smallest indi- 
cation of uneasiness or pain. 

Q,. What other trials did they undergo? 

A. The youth at this period had their skirmishes 
and mock-fights, in which they frequently en- 
dangered their lives : they were also annually 
whipped at the altar of Diana; and the boy, who 
bore this punishment with the greatest fortitude, 
was highly honored. 

Q,. What were their other exercises ? 

A. The Spartan youth of both sexes were ex- 
ercised together in running, wrestling, shooting 
with the bow, and throwing the quoit and javelin. 

Q,. What effect had all these exercises upon 
them ? 

A.. The exercises to which the Spartan youth 
were inured, gave strength, agility, and velocity to 
the body ; and to the mind, firmness, resolution, 
patience, and contempt of death. 

Q,. What was their usual food? 

A. The Spartan youth were permitted to eat 
flesh ; and they were always present at the public 
entertainments, at which they heard the aged re- 
late the great achievements performed during their 
lives, and the happiness and glory of those, who 
had shed their blood in defence of their country. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 51 

Q,. Were they allowed to be inattentive to what 
was here said ? 

A. No: at the public suppers they were ques- 
tioned by their directors, concerning the deeds of 
their ancestors ; and if they were at a loss how to 
reply, they were exposed to the contempt of their 
companions; but if they displayed an acute and 
generous disposition, they were applauded, and 
considered as the future supports of the state. 

Q,. How long did they continue in this state of 
discipline ? 

A. These exercises continued till they arrived 
at the age of 30; they were then ranked amongst 
the men, were permitted to marry, to enter the 
army, or to bear any office in the state. 

Q,. What was the education of the females ? 

A. The discipline of the Spartan virgins was as 
severe as that of the young men, with whom they 
performed their public exercises; they were thus 
inured to a life of labor and industry, till they were 
20 years of age, before which time they were not 
considered as marriageable. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Spartan Laws. 

Q,. What remarkable laws were there in Sparta, 
relating to religion. 

Note. — The laws of Sparta were chiefly established by 
Lycurgus the great lawgiver, and were calculated to excite 
the enthusiasm of valor, patriotism, and the sense of 
liberty ; they continued in force during upwards of 700 
years, and rendered Lacedaemon the terror and the umpire 
of the neighboring kingdoms. 



52 CATECHISM OF 

A. In Sparta it was ordered, that all the statues 
of gods and goddesses should be represented in the 
army : it was forbidden to make long prayers, or 
to ask more than, that they might live honestly 
and discharge their duty; nor were any tears, 
sighs, and outcries at funerals, permitted in public. 

Q,. What law related to the lands of the republic? 

A. To reduee all citizens to an equality, and 
that no one should be so powerful as to oppress 
his neighbor^ the lands of the commonwealth were 
divided into 30,000 equal shares, which were 
portioned out to the citizens of each district ; and 
no one could increase or lesson these possessions 
by buying or selling. 

Q,. What regulations existed concerning 
strangers? 

A. Strangers were not allowed to reside in 
the city of Sparta for any length of time, lest they 
should corrupt the Spartans ; nor could they be 
promoted to any office, unless they were first re- 
ceived as citizens. 

d. What were the most remarkable laws rela- 
tive to marriage. 

A. Unmarried men were deemed infamous; but 
they who had three children enjoyed great immu- 
nities ; and such as had four, were exempted from 
taxes of every kind. 

Q,. What laws regulated the meals and diet of 
the Spartans? 

A. The Spartans were to eat together in public ; 
and whoever absented himself was fined : at these 
public repasts, every citizen had an equal portion 
assigned to him; and the greatest delicacy of the 
Spartans was their black broth. 

Note. — Of what ingredients this broth was composed, 
is not known ; some conjecture that it was a composition of 
salt, vinegar, blood, and small pieces of flesh. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 53 

T. Describe the laws relating to apparel. 

P. The rich and the poor were clothed alike, 
and were not to change the fashion or materials of 
their garments; even the kings conformed to this 
custom; but in the field they wore crowns and 
purple habits, to strike the enemy with terror, and 
to prevent their wounds from being perceived. 

Q,. What other laws were there, concerning 
dress ? 

A. The Lacedaemonians were allowed to have 
rings made of iron, to denote their valor and forti- 
tude; but gold, precious stones, and other costly 
ornaments, were allowed to be worn only by 
women of an abandoned character. 

Q,. What were the Spartan laws relative to dis- 
cipline and manners? 

A. Every Spartan was to be subject to the laws 
of his country : obedience to superiors was also 
strictly required ; and to honor the aged, was par- 
ticularly enjoined: luxury and drunkenness were 
entirely banished from the state ; and a stupid and 
idle person, who would not receive instruction, 
was considered as a scandal to human nature, and 
treated accordingly. 

Q,. What peculiarities were established in 
Sparta, concerning learning, &c? 

A. As the Spartans considered the profession of 
a soldier as the most honorable, her citizens were 
never distinguished as a literary people ; and no 
citizen was to exercise any mean or mechanical 
art, as being inconsistent with their ideas of liberty. 

Q,. What laws related to the arts ? 

Note. — The youths rose up whenever the old men en- 
tered any public place; they gave way to them when they 
met them in the street, and they were silent whenever 
their elders spoke. 



54 CATECHISM OF 

A. In Sparta, such arts as tended only to luxury 
were severely forbidden : solemn and emulative 
music might be used; but no theatrical diversions 
were allowed, and the Spartans were enjoined 
from their youth to express themselves with the 
greatest conciseness, energy, and precision. 

Q,. What laws were established concerning 
money 1 

A. No other coinage, except that of iron was 
allowed in Sparta ; and those who were found 
with gold or silver in their possession, were to be 
punished with death. 

Q,. What were the principal Spartan laws re- 
lating to war ? 

A. Every Spartan was to remain at home to 
defend his country, till he was 30 years of age ; 
when he might serve in the army. The laws for- 
bade a soldier, under any circumstances whatever, 
to flee from an enemy, and ordered him either to 
conquer or die. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Public Honors and Rewards, and Criminal 
Punishments. 

Q. What were* the honors done to those, who 
had deserved well of their country'/ 

A. One of the greatest honors in Lacedsemon 
was to have the epithet divine given to any on« 

Note. — The iron coin was so bulky and incommodious, 
that 10 minae, a sum less than 401. required a wagon of con- 
siderable size to transport it. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



55 



during his life : the first honor in the city was to 
be elected into the number of the thirty, who con- 
sisted of the two kings and the 28 senators. 

Q,. What other honors were conferred on La- 
cedaemonians daring their life time? 

A. It was esteemed honorable to a man, when 
the people in a public assembly rose up at his 
presence ; the first seat in the assembly was also 
reckoned honorable. 

Q,. What were the rewards bestowed by them'? 

A. The victors in the contests already noticed, 
were bound or adorned with thongs ; and a crown 
of olive was given, for having done well. 

Q,. What were the honors done to the dead in 
Lacedsemon? 

A. In Lacedsemon, statues, effigies, cenotaphs, 
sepulchres, and splendid monuments, were erected 
in honor of such. heroes as had deserved well of 
their country. 

Q,. What other honors were conferred after 
death ? 

A. Temples were dedicated to those who had 
distinguished themselves above the rest of man- 
kind, to others, festal days were consecrated, and 
annual orations spoken in their praise. 

Q,. What were the Lacedaemonian criminal 
punishments? 

A. In Lacedsemon, those who offended against 
the laws were fined ; and if they could not pay, 
they went into banishment : notorious offenders 
were punished with imprisonment; and those 
men, who were weak and sickly through idleness 
©r luxury, were subject to corporeal punishment. 

T. Describe other punishments made use of in 
Lacedsemon. 



56 CATECHISM OF 

P. Criminals were placed in a collar made of 
wood, that went round the neck, and fastened the 
hands together; or they were driven through the 
city with a whip : boys that gave ridiculous, or in- 
consistent answers to the questions proposed to 
them, were punished by biting the thumb. 

Q,. What were the different ways of inflicting 
the punishment of infamy? 

A. Infamy, or disgrace was inflicted on kings or 
magistrates by compelling the culprit to quit his 
office : the most severe was that of compelling him 
to go naked through the forum in winter, and sing 
verses in derision of himself, and expressive of the 
justice of his sufferings. 

Q,. What was the punishment of those who had 
fled in battle? 

A. Those Lacedaemonians who fled in battle, 
did not suffer death or imprisonment; but they 
were deprived of the honors and privileges of a 
citizen ; might be beaten by any one who met 
them; could appear only in ragged or dirty clothes, 
and with half their beard taken off. 

Note. — Such persons were not permitted to eat at the 
same table, nor engage in the same exercises with their 
countrymen : so wretched was their situation, that in the 
first battle that occurred, they rushed into the thickest of 
the enemy, thereby either to find certain death, or tore* 
cover some portion of the esteem of their country. 



BOOK III. 
RELIGION OF THE GREEKS. 



CHAPTER L 

The Gods of Greece, and the places of Re- 
ligious Worship, 

Q,. What was the religion of the Greeks ? 

A. The Greeks were heathens, and worshipped 
a great number of gods, whom they divided into 
celestial, terrestrial, and infernal They were very 
superstitious; and besides their own, worshipped 
unknown gods. 

Q,. Where and in what forms did the primitive 
Greeks worship their gods. 

A. In the more distant ages of Greece, the 
Greeks, and most other nations, worshipped their 
gods upon the tops of high mountains; and the 
representatives of their deities were rude and 
misshaped masses, either of stone or wood. 

Q,. Did not the Greeks afterwards worship their 
gods in temples'? 

A. Yes : the temples, afterwards built in Greece, 
were very magnificent, and adorned with altars, 
and statues of their gods, of exquisite workmanship. 

Note. — They frequently adopted the gods of other na- 
tions, so that they are said to have had thirty thousand 
objects of divine worship ; hence the enumeration of even 
the principal of these would be tedious, and likewise un- 
necessary, as the study of the heathen mythology is indis- 
pensable to a liberal education. 

5 



58 CATECHISM OF 

Q,. What is remarkable of the Grecian places 
of worship? 

A. The Greeks built their temples in places 
most agreeable to the deities, who were to inhabit 
them : some in woods, mountains, valleys, or 
fields; others in rivers or fountains. 

Q,. What was the privilege of the objects, and 
places of worship? 

A. The temples, statues, and altars, were ac- 
counted so sacred, that many had the privilege of 
protecting malefactors; so £hat when they fled to 
them, it was sacrilege to take them away, and 
was severely punished. 

T. Describe the Grecian statues and altars. 

P. The ancient Greeks commonly made their 
statues of the wood of trees dedicated to particular 
gods, and placed them * upon pedestals in the 
middle of the temple: the altars were usually 
made of stone, and differed in shape. 

Q,. Did not they also worship in sacred groves? 

A. Altars were very frequently erected under 
the shade of trees which were tall and beautiful, 
but which yielded no fruit: there were also sacred 
fields, set apart in honor of some god or hero, and 
whose produce was carefully reserved for reli- 
gious purposes. 

Note. — In this respect, the Lacedaemonians differed from 
the other Greeks, and worshipped their gods with as little 
expense and show as possible. 

Note. — In some instances, however, the doors of the 
temples were shut, and the criminals starved ; and some- 
times the malefactors were forced out by fire. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 59 



CHAPTER II. 

Priests ', Sacrifices, Presents, Prayers, and 
Oaths. 

&. Were the Grecian priests held in much 
estimation ? 

A. The priests were honored with the places 
next to the kings and chief magistrates; for they 
were esteemed mediators between the gods and 
men, and deputed by the gods to be their inter- 
preters, and to instruct men how to worship. 

Q,. How were the priests chosen, and what 
were the qualifications for the priesthood ? 

A. Some of the Grecian priests obtained their 
office by inheritance; others by lot or popular 
election : whoever was admitted to this dignity, 
was to be sound and perfect in all his members^ 
and sound in mind, pure, and uncorrupt. 

Q,. What were the different orders of priests? 

A. Of the different orders of Grecian priests, no 
exact account can be given, as not only every god 
had a different order, but even the same god in 
different places : in general, besides a high priest, 
there were inferior priests to collect the corn allot- 
ted for public sacrifices, to slay the victims, and to 
cleanse and adorn the temples. 

Q,. How many kinds of sacrifices were there? 

A. Grecian sacrifices were either free-will offer- 
ings, as for a victory, Sic.: propitiatory, to avert the 
anger of some offended god ; petitionary sacrifices, 
for success in any enterprize ; or those which were 
"commanded by some oracle or prophet. 

Q,. Of what did the Grecian sacrifices consist? 

A. Sacrifices at first consisted only of herbs and 



60 CATECHISM OF 

fruits; but after wards animals were also offered, 
and costly perfumes added, to render them more 
acceptable : sacred cakes made also part ol^the 
sacrifice ; and no oblation was considered accept- 
able to the gods, unless mixed with salt. 

Q,. What animals were offered up as sacrifices ? 

A. The animals differed according to the gods 
to whom they were offered up : to the celestial 
gods were sacrificed white, to the infernal, black 
victims : no animal was offered up unless it were 
perfect and without blemish. 

Q,. What was required of those who offered 
sacrifices? 

A. Sacrifices were to be accommodated in ex- 
pense to the condition of the person who offered 
them : persons who had committed any notorious 
crimes, were not permitted to attend the sacred 
rites, till purified from their offences. 

Q,. What was the dress of the priests during 
the sacrifices? 

A. The attire of the Grecian priests was splendid, 
differing little from the royal robes : it was without 
spot or stain, loose and unbound; and the color 
differed according to the gods to whom the sacri- 
fice was offered. When sacrificing to the celestial 
gods, their color was purple: to the infernal gods, 
they sacrificed in black : their crowns were made 
of poplar for Hercules, laurel for Apollo, myrtle 
for Venus, &c. The priest also wore a crown, 
and sometimes a mitre of wool, from which a 
riband was suspended on each side. 

Q,. How were the victims made ready for a 
sacrifice? 

Note. — But almost every god had some peculiar animal : 
thus, to Mars was usually sacrificed a bull, a dog to Diana, 
a dove to Venus, a sow to Ceres, &c. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 61 

A. The victims were adorned with fillets and 
ribands to their horns, and garlands on their 
necks: on solemn occasions, their horns were 
overlaid with gold. 

Q,. How was the altar decorated for a sacrifice 7 

A. The Grecian altars were decorated with 
sacred herbs peculiar to the gods to whom they 
sacrificed. 

Q,. In what way did the sacrifice commence ? 

A. All things being prepared, the salted cake, 
the knife, and the crowns, were brought in a 
basket, by virgins appointed for the purpose. 

Q,. What ceremonies were then performed? 

A. The victim was led or driven to the altar, 
without violence; then the priest, turning to the 
right hand, went round it, sprinkled it with meal 
and sacred water, and also those who were present. 

Q,. What were the other ceremonies? 

A. All the persons present then joined in prayer, 
according to a set form : this being ended, food 
was set before the victim, which, if it refused to eat, 
it was rejected as unsound ; but if approved, after 
different ceremonies, it was struck down, and its 
throat cut by the priests appointed for that purpose. 

Q,. From what circumstances were omens 
drawn ? 

A. If by chance the animal escaped the stroke, 
leaped up after it, bellowed, or did not fall to the 
ground ; if it died with pain and with difficulty, 
did not bleed freely, or was a long time dying, they 
were thought unlucky omens : but their contra- 
ries were considered as propitious. 

Q,. How was the victim disposed of? 

A. The parts of the victims selected for the gods, 

Note. — Unless all were burned, the sacrifice was not 
considered as accepted by the gods. 



62 CATECHISM OF 

were the thighs; these were covered with fat, so 
that the whole might be consumed : the rest fur- 
nished a feast to ihe sacrificer and his friends. 

Q,. What was done during the burning of the 
sacrifice? 

A. While the sacrifice was burning, the priest 
and the person who gave the victim, offered prayers 
to the god, with their hands upon the altar; musie 
and dancing likewise formed part of the ceremony, 
whilst they sung the sacred hymns. 

Q,. What other oblations were made to the gods ? 

A. Besides sacrifices, presents were offered to 
the gods for the same purposes ; they consisted 
chiefly of crowns, garlands, golden cups and orna- 
ments for the temples. 

Q,. Was the religion of the Greeks confined to 
public occasions? 

A. No: it was a universal practice to address 
prayers and supplications to their deities every 
morning and evening, prostrating themselves, and 
holding in their hands bougie of laurel or olive. 

Q,. What do you observe of the Grecian oath? 

A. Their manner of swearing varied according 
to the business in which they were engaged: the 
usual modes w<ere lifting their hands up to hea- 
ven, and laying their hands on the altars. Their 
imprecations were extremely terrible ; and so pow- 
erful as to occasion the ruin, not only of individuals, 
but of whole families and cities. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 63 

CHAPTER HI. 

Grecian Oracles and Divinations* 

Q,. What were the Oracles ? 

A. The Oracles were certain temples, in which 
future events were made known to the devout in- 
quirers, by means of priests or priestesses, who 
were supposed to converse familiarly with the gods, 
and to be inspired with extraordinary powers. 

Q,. Were oracles held in much veneration by 
the Greeks ? 

A. Oracles obtained such eredit and esteem 
among the Greeks, that they were consulted in ail 
disputes and controversies, and their determinations 
were held sacred and inviolable. 

Q,. On what other accounts were the Oracles 
consulted 1 

A. Nothing of moment was undertaken, without 
first knowing the will of the gods ; as if a new 
form of government was to be instituted, if war 
was to be proclaimed, if peace was to be concluded, 
or if laws were to be enacted, the Oracles were 
the first to be consulted. 

Q,. What were the most celebrated Oracles of 
Greece ? 

A. The Oracles of the greatest repute, were 
those of Apollo, at Delphi and at Delos ; the Oracle 
of Jupiter, at Dodona ; and that of Trophonius : 
besides these, ancient authors make mention of 
several hundreds established in different parts of 
Greece. 

T. Describe the Oracle of Delphi. 

P. The Oracle of Delphi was situated on Mount 
Parnassus, and was the supposed residence of the 



64 CATECHISM OF 

god Apollo, who inspired a priestess, called 
Pythia, with prophetic answers. 

Q,. How was the Oracle delivered? 

A. The Pythia being placed over a fissure, from 
which there issued a strong sulphureous vapor, 
the priestess began to foam at the mouth, tore her 
hair, and mangled her flesh: and the incoherent 
words uttered during- the supposed prophetic 
phrenzy, were clothed in verse, and delivered as 
the answer of the Oracle. 

Q,. In what way were the Oracles delivered at 
Dodona? 

A. At the Oracle of Dodona, the priestess of 
Jupiter declared the will of the gods, and predicted 
future events by observing attentively the murmur 
of the sacred oaks, or listening to the voice of a 
fleeting spring: sometimes, also, she deduced her 
predictions from the clashing of copper basins sus- 
pended in the air. 

Q,. Were not predictions also made from dreams? 

A. Yes: the Grecians were very superstitious 
in this respect, and underwent many formalities to 
obtain a prophetic dream ; for which purpose they 
fasted and clothed themselves in white : if their 
dreams were obscure, or of doubtful meaning, an 
interpreter was consulted. 

Q,. What was the method of divination by sacri- 
fices ? 

A. In sacrifices it was considered an unlucky 
omen when the beast was dragged by force to the 
altar, when it avoided the fatal blow, when it 
kicked or bellowed, or did not bleed freely, and 
when it was long in dying, or expired in agonies : 
if the contrary, the gods were deemed propitious. 

Q,. What is remarkable of the divination by 
birds ? 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 65 

A. When the Grecian augurs made observa- 
tions, they were clothed in white, and had a crown 
of gold upon their heads; and the birds which 
they saw., were accounted ominous, either from 
their own nature, or from the place and manner of 
their appearance. 

Q,. .What omens were derived from insects and 
reptiles? 

A. Bees were esteemed as an omen of eloquence; 
toads were accounted lucky omens; snakes and 
serpents were also ominous ; boars were always 
deemed unlucky; and if the hare appeared in time 
of war, it signified defeat and flight. 

Q,. From what signs of the heavens w r ere omens 
drawn ? 

A. Comets and eclipses were always thought to 
portend something dreadful : thunder or lightning, 
if it appeared on the right hand, was a good omen; 
if on the left, unlucky. If two lambent flames ap- 
peared together, they were accounted very favora- 
ble; but if only one was seen, it was reckoned a 
very dangerous omen. 

Q,. From what other circumstances was divina- 
tion performed ? 

A. Divination was also performed by drawing 
lots, by ominous things, as sneezing &c, and by 
magical jfiteantations. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Grecian Festivals and Games. 

G,. On what account were festivals instituted? 
A. The Grecian festivals were chiefly instituted 
in honor of the gods ; to avert some evil, or to ob- 



66 CATECHISM OF 

tain some good > in memory of heroes and great 
men ; or of seasons of ease and rest from labor, 

Q,. What have you further to observe of the 
Grecian festivals ? 

A. In ancient times the festivals were chiefly 
rural, and characterized by joy and gratitude ; but 
in latter ages, the joy of them was much increased, 
and most of them were celebrated at the public ex- 
pense with extraordinary magnificence. 

Q,. What were the public games of Greece ? 

A. There were four public and solemn games 
in Greece, called the Olympic, the Pyihian, the 
Nemean, and the Isthmain. 

Q,, What were the sports and exercises used in 
them ? 

A. The exercises practised at these games were 
leaping, running, throwing, boxing, and wres- 
tling. 

Q,. What have you to remark on these exercises? 

A. Running was much esteemed among the 
ancient Greeks; leaping was sometimes performed 
with weights in their hands, or upon the head or 
shoulders : in boxing, the combatants held in their 
hands balls of stone or lead, while their arms were 
guarded with thongs of leather: in wrestling three 
falls were accessary to give the antagonist the 
victory. 

Q,. What were the other exercises attne public 
games? 

A. There were horse and chariot races, and 
contentions between poets, musicians, orators, 
philosophers, and artists of different descriptions. 

Q,. By whom were the Olympic instituted? 

A. They were instituted by Hercules, 1222 years 
before Christ, and renewed after a long period of 
neglect, by Lycurgus, 884 years before the Chris- 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 67 

tian era, from which time the Greeks dated their 
Olympiads. 

Q,. At what time and place were they cele- 
brated ? 

A. The Olympic games were held every fifth 
year at Olyrnpia, a town thirty miles from Elis; 
the inhabitants of the latter town had the super- 
intendence of them, and thereby enjoyed great 
privileges. 

Q,. What was required of the presidents? 

A. The presidents of these games were obliged 
solemly to swear that they would act impartially, 
and not lake any bribes, or discover why they re- 
jected some of the combatants. 

Q,. What was required of the combatants? 

A. No one was permitted to contend, unless he 
had previously exercised himself during ten months 
in the public Gymnasium at Elis; nor could a no- 
torious criminal, or his near relations enter the 
lists, The contenders were also obliged to swear 
that they would employ no unlawful means to ob- 
tain the rewards. 

d. What else is remarkable of the combatants ? 

A. The order of the combatants was appointed 
by lot — those who drew similar ballots contended 
together. At an early period, women were not 
allowed to be present at the Olympic games ; and 
a breach of this law was punished by tumbling 
the delinquent headlong from a rock. Afterwards, 
however, the laws were altered, and women were 
permitted not only to be present, but to contend in 
the games ; and some of them obtained prizes. 

(£. What were the honors done to the success- 
ful combatants? 

A. The first reward of the victor was a universal 
shout of acclamation, which proceeded from every 



68 CATECHISM OF 

part of the assembly in the moment of victory ; he 
then had a branch of palm put into his hand, to 
distingnish him during the rest of the games. 

Q,. What was the reward of the victors? 

A. At the conclusion of the games, all the vic- 
tors were summoned before the judges; crowns of 
olive were put on their head 5 and They were con- 
ducted, one after another, through the assembly, 
by a herald, who proclaimed their own names, 
and those of their parents, and their countries. 

Q. Were these games much frequented? 

A. The Olympic games drew together an im- 
mense concourse from every state and town of 
Greece; and they were even frequented by people 
from Egypt, Lybia, Sicily, and other foreign 
countries. 

d. What were the Pythian games? 

A. The Pythian games were celebrated every 
fifth year near Delphi, in honor of Apollo. The 
exercises were the same as those used at the 
Olympic, with the addition of musical contentions: 
the victors were crowned with laurels. 

Q,. What were the Nemean games? 

A. The Nemean games were instituted by Her- 
cules, after 'his victory over the Nemean lion: 
they were celebrated every third year with the 
usual exercises, and the victors were crowned with 
parsley. 

Q,. What were the Isthmain games? 

A. The Isthmain games were so called from 
their being celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth. 

Note. — Small and trifling as the reward was, yet it 
proved a stimulus to courage and virtue, and was more 
highly prized than the greatest treasures would have been. 
The glory of the victors was very great, and statues were 
erected to them in the wood consecrated to Jupiter. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 69 

The Eleans were the only people of Greece that 
absented themselves from this solemnity, in con- 
sequence of a dreadful execration pronounced 
against them, if they should ever be present at 
their celebration. 

Q,. What else have you to remark of the Isth- 
main games 1 

A. The Isthmain games were celebrated every 
third or fifth year, and the victors were rewarded 
with garlands of pftie leaves : they were held so 
sacred and inviolable, that when Corinth was 
sacked and demolished, they were not discontinued. 



CHAPTER V. 
Computation of Time. 

Q,. How did the ancient Greeks compute their 
years and days? 

A. In the heroic ages of Greece, the years were 
numbered by the return of seed-time and harvest, 
and by the seasons of. labor and rest: the days 
were not divided by any certain portions of time, 
but only by the rising and setting of the sun. 

Q,. What were the improvements upon this 
computation ? 

A. The Greeks learned the use of the sun-dial 
and the 12 parts of the day from the Egyptians : 
and observed the monthly course of the moon, 
which, after many inventions, they reconciled to 
the annual course of the sun. 

Note. — The Isthmus of Corinth, in the Mediterranean, 
is a neck of land that joins Peloponnesus to the continent. 



70 GRECIAN ANTIUQITIES. 

Q,. When did the Athenians begin their year? 

A. The Athenians began their year on the first 
new moon after the summer solstice, that is, about 
the latter end of June; and divided their year into 
12 months, each month containing 30 and 29 days 
alternately. 

&. How were the months subdivided? 

A. Every month was divided into three decades 
of days, which were reckoned separately, that is, 
the first ten days of the month were the first, se- 
cond, &c. days of the first decade; the eleventh 
days of the month was the first days of the second 
decade; and so on with the third. 

Q,. What methods had they of finding the hours 
of the d^y ? 

A. The Greeks, beside the sundial, measured 
time by a round vessel with an opening at the 
bottom, containing as much water as emptied 
itself in the specified time. By *his instrument 
they measured the time for orators to speak at the 
bar, or before the assembly of the people. 



BOOK IV. 
MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE GREEKS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Levies, Pay, and different sorts of Soldiers. 

Q,. Of whom di ! the Grecian armies consist? 

A. The armies of the different states of Greece 
consisted, for the most part, of citizens whom the 
laws of their country obliged, at a certain age, to 
appear in arms at the summons of the magistrate. 

Q,. What was the age at which Grecian citizens 
were obliged to serve ? 

A. The age for entering the army varied in dif- 
ferent states: the Athenians began theirmilitary 
career at 18, but they were not sent to foreign wars 
before 20: but the Spartans did not send them to 
foreign wars until they reached the age of thirty. 

Q,. How were the levies made ? 

A. Every citizen who was capable of serving, 
was entered in a public roll, and soldiers were 
chosen from it by lot, every family furnishing a 
certain number, who served at their own expense : 
defaulters were deprived of the rights of citizens, 
and excluded the public temples. 

Q,. Of what soldiers were the Grecian armies 
eotrjposed ? 

Note. — Farmers of the public revenue, priests, public 
dancers, and all slaves, were exempted from this law, and 
never served as soldiers, except in cases of extreme danger, 
when there remained no other means of saving the com- 
monwealths 



72 CATECHISM OF 

A. The main body of the Grecian armies was 
composed of infantry ; and the rest rode in chariots,, 
upon horse back, or upon elephants. 

Q,. How many kinds of foot were there? 

A. The foot were of three sorts ; the first, those 
who bore heavy armor, and who fought with 
broad shields and long spears; the second, light 
armed soldiers, who annoyed the enemy with 
arrows and darts, or stones and slings ; the third 
were a middle sort of men, who carried shields 
and spears, but of inferior size and weight to those 
of the heavy armed men. 

&. Of whom was the cavalry composed ? 

A. The Grecian cavalry was not at first very 
numerous, consisting- only of such as were pos- 
sessed of estates, and were able to maintain horses. 

T. Describe their chariots. 

P. Chariots were richly ornamented, and some- 
times embossed with gold and other metals ; they 
were drawn by two horses, and every chariot 
carried two men, the driver and the warrior ; some 
of the chariots were armed with hooks and scythes, 
with which whole ranks of soldiers were cut down. 

Q,. What have you to observe of the elephants? 

A. Elephants were not used in wars by the 
Greeks till the time of Alexander: they then 
carried into battle large towers, which contained 
from 10 to 30 men, who annoyed the enemy with 
missile weapons; while the beasts terrified their 
opponents with their noise, tossed them in the air. 
or trampled them under their feet. 

Q,. Who were the officers of the Athenian 
armies? 

A. At Athens, 10 commanders of equal power 
were elected in the assembly of the people, one 
from each tribe; they were invested with absolute 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 73 

command, which they enjoyed by turns, ? a ap ~ 
pointed the inferior officers. „. 

a. Who commanded theLacedsem ^an armies^ 
A. The supreme command of - ieir armies was 
vested in one of the kings; Mt he was attended 
by two of the Ephori, wb- matched over his con- 
duct, and assisted him - lth lheir advice : the king 
was guarded by 300 valiant Spartans, who fought 
about his person while they who had obtained 
prizes at the swcred games, fought before him. 



CHAPTER II. 

Military Armor and Weapons. 

Q,. How may the Grecian arms be divided ? 

A. The aims of the Greeks may be divided into 
defensive and offensive ; that is, those which were 
intended for their own defence, and those which 
were intended to annoy the enemy. 

T. Describe the helmet. 

P. The helmet was usually made of brass, and 
sometimes of the skins of beasts, witfr the hair 
still on ; and, to render them more terrible, the 
teeth were often placed in a grinning manner, the 
crest was made of horse-hair or feathers, and was 
curiously ornamented. 

T. Describe the coat of mail. 

P. The coat of mail consisted of two parts ; one 
for the defence of the back, and the other of the 
breast : these divisions were joined at the side 
with a kind of buttons. 

&. What were the other parts of their defensive 
armor ? 
6 



74 CATECHISM OF 

/, The Greek soldiers also wore a breast-plate 
, ", and lined with wool, next their skin 
under the oat of mail . from tne bottom of their 
coat of mail ^ t ^ e [ {nees? they wore a piece of 
armor called zoiu, whiie lne legs were defended 
by greaves of brass, v nppe ^ or oine r metals. 

a. Of what materials ^ f orin was theVouckler? 

A. The Grecian buckler „ as ma d e of wickers 
woven together, or of light w* d covered with 
hides and fortified with plates ol metal : it was 
usually round, and curiously adorned 'vith figures 
of birds and beasts, of the celestial bodies, and of 
the works of nature. . 

Q,. What was the principal offensive weapons 
used by the Greeks ? 

A. The chief offensive weapon of the Greeks 
was the spear or pike, ol' which there were two 
sorts ; the one was used in close fight, and the other 
discharged at the enemy from a distance. 

Q,. What were their oilier offensive weapons? 

A. The Greeks also used the sword, which hung 
suspended by a belt over the shoulders ; the dagger 
which supplied on ail occasions the want of a 
knife; the pole axe ; and a club of wood or iron. 

T. Describe their bows and arrows. 

P. The Grecian bows were made of wood, but 
anciently of horn ; they were frequently orna- 
mented with gold or silver: the bowstring was 
made of horse hair, The arrows had an iron head, 
which w^as hooked, and sometimes besmeared 
with poison : they were usually winged with 
feathers, to increase their speed and force. 

Q,. Did not the Greeks use slings 1 

Note. — Alexander commanded his soldiers to lay aside 
their lack-pieces, in order that, if they attempted to flee, 
their bucks might be exposed naked to the enemy* 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 75 

■. A. The sling was very common among" tILe 
Greeks, who cast from it stones and plummets 
with astonishing force and precision : *™ slinging 
they whirled it two or three times *oout the head, 
and then cast the bullet. 

Q,. What other offensive missile did the Gre- 
cians use? 

A. The Greeks used fire-balls, or arrows, having 
a quantity of combustible matter, as hemp, pitch, 
&c, fastened to them: these being set on fire, 
were thrown with great force, and burned down 
all in their wav. 



CHAPTER. III. 
Grecian Battles and Sieges. 

Q,. What were the ceremonies used before a 
declaration of war 1 

A. Before the Greeks engaged in war, it was 
usual to publish a declaration of he injuries they 
had received, and to demand reparation by sending 
heralds, who carried'in their hands a staff of laurel, 
entwined with two serpents, as emblems of peace, 
or an olive branch covered with wool, and adorned 
with different sorts of fruits. 

Q,. How was war declared? , 

A. When the Greeks were determined to com- 
mence the war, they offered sacrifices, and con- 
sulted the orcles : after thus rendering the gods 

Note. — Aft* r every preparation was made for wr 
was reckoned no less impious than daugerous, to attack the 
enemy until favorable omens encouraged them so to do ; 
an eclipse of the moot, was enough to deter them from 
marching or engaging; and ats unlucky day would present 
the execution of the best concerted, enterprise. . 



76 CATECHISM OF 

P^pitious,. a herald was sent to the enemy to tell 
them *o prepare for an invasion, and who some- 
- times thi* w a spear towards them, in token of 
defiance. 

Q,. What wert the preparations for a battle? 

A. Before the soldiers engaged, they always re- 
freshed themselves with victuals : the army was 
then marshalled in one front, and the general made 
an oration to his soldiers, in which he exhorted 
them to vigor ; and such was the effect of these 
speeches., that the soldiers were frequently ani- 
mated with fresh courage, and repulsed the enemy, 
by whom perhaps they had before been defeated. 

Q,. What were the instruments used in the Gre- 
cian armies? 

A. The martial music of the Greeks consisted 
chiefly of trumpets, of which there were six sorts; 
but the Cretans and Lacedcemonians were called 
to battle by the sound of flutes. 

Q,. How did the Greeks advance to the battle? 

A. All the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians, 
advanced to the battle with eagerness and fury, 
giving a general shout to animate themselves; it 
was therefore a very desirable quality in a com- 
mander to have a strong and loud voice, which 
might enable him to be heard at a distance, and to 
strike terror into the enemy. 

'Q,. Did the Greeks frequently besiege the towns 
of the enemy? 

Note. — Agesilaus being asked why the Lacedaemonians 
began their engagements with a concert of flutes, answered, 
that it was to distinguish cowards, who, by reason of their 
consternation, were unable to keep time with their feet to 
the music. 

Note. — It was a frequent custom among the Greeks, for 
the leaders to decide the quarrel by single combat,^or by 
two or more champions on each side. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 77 

A. No : the ancient Greeks were unacquainted 
with the art of besieging towns ; and in later ages 
they were very averse to undertake long" sieges : 
they preferred taking a place by storm, or deciding 
their quarrels, if possible, by one general engage- 
ment in the open field. 

Q,. How did they commence a siege? 

A. When the Greeks intended to lay close siege 
to a place, they threw up works of circumval- 
lation, or a double wall of turf; the inner was to 
defend them from the sudden sallies of the be- 
sieged ; and the outer was to secure them from 
foreign enemies, who might come to the relief of 
the town. 

Q,. What were the principal engines used in war? 

A. The principal engines used by the Greeks 
were, the Clielone, or tortoise ; the Choma, or 
mount; the Pyrgi, or movable towers of wood; 
the Krius, or ram ; and the Catapeltce. 

T. Describe the tortoise. 

P. The Chelone, or tortoise, was formed by the 
soldiers placing their shields over their heads, slop- 
ing like the tiles of a house : in order to form this 
engine, the first rank stood erect ; the second sloped 
a little; the third still more; till the last rank kneeled. 

Q,. What was the Choma f 

A. The Choma was a mount of earth, timber, 
stones, &c, raised so high as to equal, if not ex- 
ceed the top of the besieged walls. 

Q,. What was the use of the movable towers ? 

A. The Pyrgi, or movable towers of wood were 
used in scaling the walls, being driven forward 
upon wheels, and divided into stories capable not 

Note.— This invention was used in the field battles, but 
more frequently in surprising cities, as it served to protect 
the besiegers in the approach to the walls. 



78 CATECHISM OF 

only of carrying soldiers, bat several sorts of 
engines. 

T. Describe the Krias. 

P. The Krius, or ram,, was a powerful engine 
with an iron head, employed in battering down 
the walls of cities : it was usually hung with ropes 
to a beam, by the help of which, the soldiers 
swung it forward with greater force. 

Q,. What were the CatapelUe f 

A. They were different sorts of engines for cast- 
ing large darts, arrows, and stones : they were 
very formidable, as the ancients had no artillery. 

Q,. How did the besieged defend themselves? 

A. The walls of the besieged towns were 
guarded by soldiers, who assaulted the invaders 
with engines, stones, and other missile weapons ; 
they also undermined the mounts, and burned 
their towers and engines with fire-balls. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Military Funerals, Booty, Offerings to the 
Gods, Trophies. 

Q,. What was the treatment of the slain ? 

A. The Greeks were superstitiously careful to pro- 
cure an honorable interment for the bodies of their dead, 
who had valiantly fallen in fighting for their countryf; 
and the omission of it was punished with death. 

T. Describe the funeral rites. 

P. The soldiers attended with their arms inverted, 
and other symbols of mourning : on the tombs of the 

Note. — Some of the Catapeltae were so powerful as to 
discharge stones of a size not less than millstones, with such 
violence as to dash whole houses to pieces at a blow. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES 79 

dead were inscribed their names and exploits: an 
oration was pronounced in their praise, and trophies 
were erected over their graves. 

Q. In what manner were the spoils disposed of? 

A. Military booty consisted of prisoners and spoils: 
part of the latter was consumed in grateful offerings to 
the gods; part was disposed of in presents to the gen- 
eral : and the rest was divided among the soldiers, ac- 
cording to their merits. The prisoners who could not 
ransom themselves, were made slaves. 

Q; What devotions were performed after a victory ? 

A. It was customary, among the Greeks, to offer 
solemn sacrifices to the gods, and to return public 
thanks to them after a victory. At the end of a war, 
it was very common to dedicate the armor of the enemy, 
a3 well as their own, and to suspend it in temples. 

Q. What were trophies ? 

A. Trophies were erected to commemorate some 
signal victory, and were usually dedicated to soire god: 
they consisted of trunks of trees, decorated with the 
arms of the enemy, inscriptions, &c; but in latter ages 
they were composed of stone or brass. 



CHAPTER V. 
Military Punishments and Rewards. 

Q. What were the military punishments of the 
Greeks ? 

A. The Greeks had no fixed mode of correcting their 
soldiers, but left that to the discretion of their com- 
manders : only in a few cases the laws made provisions. 

Q. What was the punishment of deserters, and such 
as refused to serve ? 

A. Deserters suffered death : such as refused to serve 
in war, and cowards, were obliged to sit three days in 
the public forum, in women's apparel ; they were also 



80 CATECHISM OF * 

fined, and were not permitted to wear garlands, nor to 
enter the public temples. 

Q. What other punishments were there ? 

A. They who lost their bucklers, were branded with 
extreme cowardice ; but, among the Lacedaemonians, 
whose laws obliged them either to conquer or die, they 
who quitted their bucklers were visited with the severest 
punishments. 

Q,. What were the military rewards of the Greeks ? 

A. As rewards of valor, the private soldiers were in- 
vested with office, and the subordinate officers honored 
with higher command: those who signalized themselves 
also received large gifts from the general, or a crown on 
which were inscribed their names and actions. 

Q. What other rewards were bestowed by the Greeks? 

A. They who lost any of their limbs in war, were 
maintained at the public charge; and the children of those 
who valiantly sacrificed their lives for their country, 
were educated at the public charge till they w T ere of age. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Naval Affairs of the Greeks. 

Q. How many kinds of ships had the Greeks r 

A. The Grecian ships consisted chiefly of three sorts; 
ships of war, of burden, and of passage ; the last were 
used as transports ; the ships of burden were usually of 
a round form, and served as tenders. 

Q. How were the ships of war distinguished ? 

A. Ships of war were distinguished by the several 
orders or banks of oars, which were not placed on the 
same level directly ovar the rower's heads, but were 
fixed at the back of each other, ascending gradually in 
the form of stairs. 

Q. What were the usual rates of ships of war? 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 81 

A. The mos f usual number of these banks was three, 
four and five, whence these ships were called trireme* 
quadrireme, and quinquereme gallies : ships were further 
distinguished by various engines and buildings, to de- 
fend their own soldiers, and to annoy the enemy. 

Q. What were the principal engines on board these 
ships ? 

A. The chief warlike engines used in the Grecian 
ships, were the Embolon, the Cataslromata, and the 
Delphin. 

T. Describe the Embolon. 

P. The Embolon was a beak of wood fortified wnh 
brass, which projected from the lower part of the prow, 
so as to pierce the enemy's ships under water. 

Q. What were the Catastromata ? 

A. The Catastromata were platforms of wood raised 
on the foremost and hindermost parts of the deck, that 
the soldiers standing as it were on an eminence, might 
discharge their missile weapons with greater force and 
certainty against their enemies. 

Q. What was the Delphin ? 

A. The Delphin was a massy piece of iron or lead, in 
the form of a dolphin, which was hung with cords and 
pulleys to the sail-yards or mast, and from thence 
thrown with great violence into the enemy's ships, in 
order to penetrate them and let in the sea, or to sink 
them by its weight and force. 

Q. What else do you observe of the Grecian ships? 

A. The Grecian ships had usually one, but some- 
times two rudders ; the one in the forepart, and the other 
in the afterpart of the ship : they had also anchors, and 
were moved both by sails and oars : the ships of war 
had commonly a helmet on the top of their masts. 

Q. How was the crew divided ? 

A. The crew consisted of rowers, who were usually 
condemned 'malefactors ; of mariners, who performed 
the other duties of the ship ; and of soldiers, who were 
solely for the combat; they were armed the same as 
land forces, except that they fought with longer spears; 
they had also a kind of sickle fastened to the end of 



82 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

long poles, with which they cut the adversary's rig- 
ging, and ropes which held the rudder to the ship. 

Q. What were the preparations made for an en- 
gagement? 

A. In preparing for a naval engagement, the Greeks 
disburdened their ships of every thing that was not ne- 
cessary for the action ; and when the enemy approached, 
they took down their sails and lowered their masts, di- 
recting the motion of their vessels by oars which they 
could manage at pleasure. 

jQ. What ceremonies were used on this occasion ? 

A. Before the fleets joined battle, each party invoked 
the assistance of the gods by prayers and sacrifices; and 
the admirals, going round from ship to ship, exhorted 
the soldiers to fight valiantly. The signal was given by 
hanging out from the admiral's galley a gilded shield or 
a red banner. 

T. Describe the attack. 

P. The battle usually was commenced by the ad- 
miral's ship, and the rest immediately joined, endeavor- 
ing with their beaks to shatter and sink each other, 
while the soldiers annoyed their enemies with darts and 
slings ; on their nearer approach they fastened the ships 
together with grappling-irons, and fought hand-to-hand 
with swords and spears. 

Q. What followed the combat ? 

A. Victory being obtained, the conquerors sailed tri- 
umphantly home, filling the sea with their acclamations 
and hymns, and dragging after them the captive ships ; 
while the admiral, mariners, and soldiers, as well as 
their ships, were adorned with crown3 and garlands. 

Q. What was done with the spoils ? 

A. They dedicated the choicest of the spoils in the 
temples of the god3, and placed the remainder in the 
porticoes and other public places of the city, to pre- 
serve the memory of their victory. 

Q. What were the naval rewards of the Greeks ? 

A. The conquerors were honored with statues, in- 
scriptions, and trophies ; the last of which were adorned 
with arm? and broken wrecks of ships. 



BOOK V . 
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS. 



CHAPTER I. 
Dress and Entertainments of the Greeks, 

Q. What was the dress of the Greeks ? 

A. The men in Greece wore an inner garment called 
a tunic, over which they threw a mantle ; their shoes or 
sandals were bound under the soles of the feet with 
thongs, or strings. 

Q,. What was the head-dress of the women ? 

A. The women bound their hair by a fillet or in a net, 
and always covered their head with a veil, which came 
down upon the shoulders ; they wore in their hair golden 
grasshoppers; and ear rings were suspended from the ears. 

Q. W T hat were the other parts of their dress ? 

A. The rest of their dress consisted of a white tunic, 
closely fastened with a broad sash, and which descended 
in waving folds down to their feet ; a shorter robe bound 
round the waist with a riband and bordered at the bot- 
tom with stripes of different colors ; over this they some- 
times had a robe, which was worn gathered up like a scarf. 

Q. How many meals did the Greeks make each day? 

A. The Greeks usually made four meals a day; the 
morning meal, which was taken about the rising of the 
sun; the next at midday; the afternoon repast; and 
the supper, which was the principal meal, as it was 
taken after the business and labor of the day. 

Q. What was the diet of the ancient Greeks ? 

A. In the early ages their food was the fruits of the 
earth, and their drink, water; when agriculture had 
made some progress, the use of bread made of barley. 

Note. — la ancient times the Greeks went with their 
heads uncovered ; but afterwards they used hats which 
were tied under the chin. 



84 CATECHISM OF 

was introduced ; but this became afterwards in use t)nly 
among the poor. 

Q. Did they always retain this simplicity ? 

A. No : the flesh of animals was introduced at a later 
period ; and although at first only roasted, it brought on 
by degrees the luxuries of the table, and some of the 
cities of Greece became renowned for producing ex- 
cellent cooks. 

Q. What was the food of the poorer orders ? 

A. The poor sometimes fed on grasshoppers and the 
extremities of leaves ; or excavated their bread, and 
filled the hollow with sauce. The Greeks, in general, 
were great lovers of fish. 

Q. What was the usual drink of the Greeks ? 

A. The usual drink of the Greeks was water, either 
hot or cold, but most commonly the latter, which was 
sometimes cooled with ice ; but wines were very gen- 
erally used, and even perfumed wines were introduced 
at the tables of the rich. 

Q. What were the ceremonies preparatory to an en- 
tertainment ? 

A. Before the Greeks went to an entertainment, they 
washed, and anointed themselves, and wore garments 
proper to the occasion : when they arrived, the enter- 
tainer either took them by the hand, or kissed their lips, 
hands, knees, or feet, as they deserved more or less 
respect. 

Q. What was, the posture of the Greeks at meals? 

A. The ancient Greeks sat at meat, either quite up- 
right, or leaning a little backward ; but in the more 
degenerate ages, this posture was changed for that of 
reclining on beds or couches. 

Note. — In the states of Lacedaemon and Athens, frugality 
was much longer maintained thau in any other Grecian 
states : the former had a peculiar manner of living ; they 
ate together at public tables, and the chief part of their 
food consisted of black broth. 

Note.— It must be observed concerning the guests, that 
men and women were never invited together. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 85 

T. Describe the more modern custom. 

P. The table was placed in the middle ; round them 
were placed couches covered with tapestry, upon which 
the guests reclined at full length, leaning on their left 
arms with their heads raised up, and their backs sup- 
ported with pillows. 

Q,. How did the feast commence ? 

A. As soon as the provisions were set on the table, 
and before the guests began to eat, a part was offered as 
a sort of first fruits to the gods. 

T. Describe the feast. 

P. The Grecian entertainments usually consisted of 
three courses : the first was of such things as was sup- 
posed to create an appetite ; the second was the prin- 
cipal : after which followed the third, which was fur- 
nished with a great profusion of sweetmeats, &c. 

Q. How was the feast regulated ? 

A. To preserve harmony at entertainments, the 
Greeks used to appoint a Basileus, or king, whose 
business it was to determine the laws of good fellow- 
ship, and to observe that every man drank his proportion. 

Q. What custom was observed in drinking ? 

A. The Greeks had a custom similar to ours, of drink- 
ing healths, not only to those present, but to their absent 
friends ; and at every name, they poured a little wine 
on the ground, which was called a libation. 

Q, How did the entertainment conclude? 

A. The entertainment being ended, a libation with a 
prayer was offered, and a hymn sung to the gods : after 
this, the company was amused with music, dancing, 
mimicry, or whatever could tend to excite mirth and 
cheerfulness. 

Note.— If .several persons reclined on the same bed, the 
first lay on the uttermost part with his legs stretched out 
behind the second person's back; the head of the second 
person was below the breast of the former, his feet being 
placed behind the third's back; and so on with the rest. 



86 CATECHISM OF 

CHAPTER II. 

Grecian Marriages, 

Q. Was marriage encouraged in Greece ?• 

A. Marriage was esteemed highly honorable, and 
was encouraged by every possible way; so much so, 
that they, who continued unmarried, were discounte- 
nanced, and in some places punished. 

Q. What was considered the most propitious season 
for marriage ? 

A. The winter months were considered as the most 
propitious for marriage ; and the most convenient season 
was, when there happened a conjunction of the sun 
and moon. 

Q. With whom were the Greeks to intermarry ? 

A. In most of the Grecian states, citizens were re- 
quired to marry only with citizens ; and those who 
married any other, were liable, upon conviction, to be 
sold for slaves. 

Q. What was necessary to render a marriage lawful ? 

A. Marriages were not considered lawful, unless the 
consent of the parents of both the parties had been ob- 
tained ; and if the virgin's parents were dead, the con- 
sent of their brothers or grandfathers was requisite. 

Q. Were dowries given with the Grecian women ? 

A. The custom of women bringing dowries to their 
husbands, was general throughout Greece, except in 
Laeedaemon, where it was not received. 

Q. What were the ceremonies preparatory to marriage? 

A. Before the marriage could be solemnized, the 
virgins offered presents and sacrifices to Diana, to obtain 
permission to leave her train, and to change their state 
of life : a small portion of the hair of the bride was also 
cut off, and dedicated to Diana, or to some other divin- 
ity to whom she was supposed to be under peculiar 
obligations. 

Q,. What ftras peculiar to the sacrifice? 



• 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 87 

A. In sacrifices which preceded marriage, the gall of 
the victim was taken oat and thrown behind the altar, 
to intimate that anger and malice ought not to exist in 
the married state; the entrails were also carefully ex- 
amined by sooth-sayers : and if any ill omen appeared, 
the contract was dissolved, and the nuptials were pre- 
vented. 

T. Describe the dress of the bride and bridegroom. 

P. The bride and bridegroom wore garments dyed of 
various colors, and were richly adorned according to 
their rank ; their heads were perfumed, and crowned with 
garlands of various herbs and flowers. 

T. Describe the nuptial procession. 

P. In the evening, the bride was conducted in a 
chariot from her own house to that of her husband, by 
the light of torches, accompanied by bands of musicfans 
and dancers ; on their arrival, the axletree of the carriage 
was burnt, to signify that she never was to return. 

Q. What wer j the other ceremonies ? 

A. When the bridegroom entered the house with his 
bride, figs and other sorts of fruit were poured on their 
heads, as a presage of future plenty 1 : a sumptuous ban- 
quet followed, with music, dancing, and songs, which 
continued during several days. 

Q. Were the Grecian women allowed much liberty ? 

A. No: The Grecian women, particularly the un- 
married, were kept closely confined in the most remote 
parts of the house, and narrowly observed: even newly 
married women were under almost as strict a confine- 
ment; this was afterwards relaxed, but they were obliged 
to be veiled whenever they appeared abroad. 

Not^. — The house in which the nuptials were celebrated, 
vras also decorated with garlands, and a pestle was tied 
upon the door. 

Note — This was the usual practice in ail the states 
of Greece except Lacedae<non, where the virgins were 
obliged, by the laws of Lycurgus, to exercise themselves in 
all kinds of manly sports- 



OS CATECHISM OF 

CHAPTER III. 
Funeral Solemnities, ${c. 

Q. Did the Greeks consider funeral rites of much 
importance ? 

A. The Greeks considered the -duties belonging to 
the dead, of the greatest importance, and the neglect of 
them, a crime of the deepest hue ; so that the greatest 
of all imprecations was to wish that a person might die 
without the honors of burial. 

Q. What were the ceremonies used towards the sick ? 

A. When any person was seized with a sickness that 
threatened life*, it was usual to fix over his door a 
branch of laurel, to render Apollo, the god of Physic, 
propitious : when the pangs of death were upon him, 
his friends prayed to Mercury, whose office it was to 
convey the ghosts to the infernal regions. 

Q. What else was done ? 

A. The friends and relations, perceiving the sick man 
at the point of death, endeavoring to catch his dying 
words, which they ever after repeated with reverence ; 
they also kissed and embraced him, striving to inhale 
h-is last breath, conceiving his soul would thus pass into 
their bodies. 

Q. What was practised at the time of the death ? 

A. At the time of the death, it was customary to beat 
brazen kettles, by which they thought to drive away 
evil spirits, and to secure the ghost of the deceased 
from the furies. 

Q. What was done when the person had expired? 

A. As soon as any person had expired, his nearest re- 
lations closed his eyes and mouth, and covered his face; 
the limbs were then decently composed, and the body 
washed and anointed; after this, it was put in a splen- 
did white garment, and laid out on a bier near the en- 
trance of the house. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 89 

Q. What e'se was done to the aea<l body ': 

A. Before the body was interred, a piece of money 
was put into its month, to pay the fare of Charon's 
boat; also a cake composed of flour, honey, kc, which 
was intended to appease the fury of the dog Cerberus - 
the infernal door-keeper, 

&. How did the Greeks dispose of their dead : 

A. The Greeks sometimes burned, and sometimes 
buried their dead ; the ceremony was performed in the 
day, usually before sunrise. 

T. Describe the funeral procession. 

P. The body was placed on a bier, and carried on 
men's shoulders ; but pi Lacedarmon it was borne on a 
buckler: the friends and relations of the deceased fol- 
lowed ; and at the funerais of soldiers, their companions 
attended with their spears pointed towards the grounds 

Q. What was the manner of burying their dead : 

A. The Greeks placed the bodies in the coffins with 
the face upwards ; and they were so laid in the grave 
as to look towards the rising un. 

T. Describe the manner of burning the dead. 

P. The body was piaced upon the top of the pile, and 
covered with the fat of beasts; various animals were 
also thrown upon the pile, and precious ointments ar.d 
perfumes were poured into the flames ; and if it was a 
military person, his arms were burnt with him. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The pile was lighted by the nearest relations of 
the deceased; and when it was burnt down, and the 
flames had ceased, they extinguished the remains of the 
fire with wine. 

Q. What was done with the bones? 

Note.— During this time, the hair of the deceased was 
hung upon the door, to denote that the farailv was in. 
mournnig. 

Note. --If the deceased were a person oi rank, they 
also burned with his body many of his slaves and captives. 



90 catechism of 

A. When the fire was extinguished, they carefully 
collected the bones and ashes, washed and anointed them, 
and deposited them in the funeral urn for interment. 

Q. Where did they bury the dead, or deposit the ashes? 

A. The Greeks buried their dead without the cities, 
and chiefly by the highways. Every family had their 
proper burying place ; to be deprived of which, was 
accounted one of the greatest calamities. 

T. Describe the tombs of the Greeks. 

P. The tombs of the Greeks were at first only caverns 
dug in the earth ; but those of later ages were paved 
with stone, and arched over; sometimes they were 
adorned with pillars, containing inscriptions in verse, of 
the family virtues and services of the deceased. 

Q. What other decorations did the Greeks put upon 
their tombs? 

A. When there was no inscription, they commonly 
erected the statue of a man, or some other resemblance 
adapted to the occasion : the graves of soldiers were dis- ' 
tinguished by their weapons; those of mariners, by 
their oars ; and the tools of every art and profession fol- 
lowed their master, -i 

Q. What solemnities were observed at the tombs ? 

A. At the funerals of persons of eminence, a pane- 
gyric was delivered before the company departed from 
the sepulchre : or oration was likewise annually re- 
peated on the anniversary of the funeral of those Athe- 
nians who had died in battle. 

Q. What other honors were paid to the dead ? 

A. The Greeks used to place burning lamps in the 
subterranean sepulchres of the dead ; from time to time, 
also, the tombs were decorated with herbs and flowers, 
and the grave-stones perfumed with sweet ointments. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 91 

CHAPTER IV. 
Celebrated Men. 

Q. Who were the most celebrated of the Greek Poets? 

A. Homer, iEschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, Hesiod, 
Pindar and Anacreon. 

&. What Historians were most celebrated among the 
Greeks ? 

A. The most celebrated Greek Historians were co- 
temporaries, viz : Herodotus, Thucydides and Xeno- 
phon ; besides these there were Polybius, Diodarus Si- 
culous, Dionysius, Plutarch and Arrian. 

Q,. Who were the great philosophers ? 

A. They were numerous : the chief of them were 
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Thales and Pythagorus. 

T. Mention some of the most eminent of the Greek 
Orators. 

A. Demosthenes, iEschines, Isaus, Lysias, and 
Pericles. 

Q,. Who were the seven wise men of Greece ? 

A. They were Thales, of Miletus ; Solon, of Athens; 
Beas, of Priene ; Clilo, of Lacedaemon ; Pittacus, of 
Metyiene ; Cleobulu3, of Lindos ; and Periander of 
Corinth. 

Q,. Who was the founder of Tragedy ? 

A. Thespis, who first carried his actors about in carts: 
but he afterwards gave them masks and introduced the 
chorus among them. 

&. Who were the most celebrated writers of tragedy? 

A. ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripedes, were the 
most celebrated. 



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improving its rules. By Thomas Ruddiman, M. A. Thirtieth Genuine 
Edition, carefully Corrected and Improved. Bv William Mann, M. A., 

Classical Teacher * 12mo, half arabesque 3s 

Mementos de Sicologio, Elements of Pyschology 75 

Pizarrds Dialogues, Spanish and English 75 



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